A. M. Turing (1950) Computing Machinery and Intelligence. Mind 49: 433-460.
COMPUTING MACHINERY AND INTELLIGENCE
By A. M. Turing
1. The Imitation Game
I propose to consider the question, "Can machines think?" This should
begin with definitions of the meaning of the terms "machine" and "think."
The definitions might be framed so as to reflect so far as possible the
normal use of the words, but this attitude is dangerous, If the meaning of the
words "machine" and "think" are to be found by examining how they are
commonly used it is difficult to escape the conclusion that the meaning and
the answer to the question, "Can machines think?" is to be sought in a
statistical survey such as a Gallup poll. But this is absurd. Instead of
attempting such a definition I shall replace the question by another, which is
closely related to it and is expressed in relatively unambiguous words.
The new form of the problem can be described in terms of a game which we
call the 'imitation game." It is played with three people, a man (A), a
woman (B), and an interrogator (C) who may be of either sex. The
interrogator stays in a room apart front the other two. The object of the
game for the interrogator is to determine which of the other two is the man
and which is the woman. He knows them by labels X and Y, and at the end
of the game he says either "X is A and Y is B" or "X is B and Y is A." The
interrogator is allowed to put questions to A and B thus:
C: Will X please tell me the length of his or her hair?
Now suppose X is actually A, then A must answer. It is A's object in the
game to try and cause C to make the wrong identification. His answer might
therefore be:
"My hair is shingled, and the longest strands are about nine inches long."
In order that tones of voice may not help the interrogator the answers
should be written, or better still, typewritten. The ideal arrangement is to
have a teleprinter communicating between the two rooms. Alternatively the
question and answers can be repeated by an intermediary. The object of the
game for the third player (B) is to help the interrogator. The best strategy
for her is probably to give truthful answers. She can add such things as "I
am the woman, don't listen to him!" to her answers, but it will avail nothing
as the man can make similar remarks.
We now ask the question, "What will happen when a machine takes the part
of A in this game?" Will the interrogator decide wrongly as often when the
game is played like this as he does when the game is played between a man
and a woman? These questions replace our original, "Can machines think?"
2. Critique of the New Problem
As well as asking, "What is the answer to this new form of the question,"
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one may ask, "Is this new question a worthy one to investigate?" This latter
question we investigate without further ado, thereby cutting short an infinite
regress.
The new problem has the advantage of drawing a fairly sharp line between
the physical and the intellectual capacities of a man. No engineer or chemist
claims to be able to produce a material which is indistinguishable from the
human skin. It is possible that at some time this might be done, but even
supposing this invention available we should feel there was little point in
trying to make a "thinking machine" more human by dressing it up in such
artificial flesh. The form in which we have set the problem reflects this fact
in the condition which prevents the interrogator from seeing or touching the
other competitors, or hearing -their voices. Some other advantages of the
proposed criterion may be shown up by specimen questions and answers.
Thus:
Q: Please write me a sonnet on the subject of the Forth Bridge.
A : Count me out on this one. I never could write poetry.
Q: Add 34957 to 70764.
A: (Pause about 30 seconds and then give as answer) 105621.
Q: Do you play chess?
A: Yes.
Q: I have K at my K1, and no other pieces. You have only K at K6 and R at
R1. It is your move. What do you play?
A: (After a pause of 15 seconds) R-R8 mate.
The question and answer method seems to be suitable for introducing
almost any one of the fields of human endeavour that we wish to include.
We do not wish to penalise the machine for its inability to shine in beauty
competitions, nor to penalise a man for losing in a race against an
aeroplane. The conditions of our game make these disabilities irrelevant.
The "witnesses" can brag, if they consider it advisable, as much as they
please about their charms, strength or heroism, but the interrogator cannot
demand practical demonstrations.
The game may perhaps be criticised on the ground that the odds are
weighted too heavily against the machine. If the man were to try and
pretend to be the machine he would clearly make a very poor showing. He
would be given away at once by slowness and inaccuracy in arithmetic.
May not machines carry out something which ought to be described as
thinking but which is very different from what a man does? This objection
is a very strong one, but at least we can say that if, nevertheless, a machine
can be constructed to play the imitation game satisfactorily, we need not be
troubled by this objection.
It might be urged that when playing the "imitation game" the best strategy
for the machine may possibly be something other than imitation of the
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behaviour of a man. This may be, but I think it is unlikely that there is any
great effect of this kind. In any case there is no intention to investigate here
the theory of the game, and it will be assumed that the best strategy is to try
to provide answers that would naturally be given by a man.
3. The Machines Concerned in the Game
The question which we put in 1 will not be quite definite until we have
specified what we mean by the word "machine." It is natural that we should
wish to permit every kind of engineering technique to be used in our
machines. We also wish to allow the possibility than an engineer or team of
engineers may construct a machine which works, but whose manner of
operation cannot be satisfactorily described by its constructors because they
have applied a method which is largely experimental. Finally, we wish to
exclude from the machines men born in the usual manner. It is difficult to
frame the definitions so as to satisfy these three conditions. One might for
instance insist that the team of engineers should be all of one sex, but this
would not really be satisfactory, for it is probably possible to rear a
complete individual from a single cell of the skin (say) of a man. To do so
would be a feat of biological technique deserving of the very highest praise,
but we would not be inclined to regard it as a case of "constructing a
thinking machine." This prompts us to abandon the requirement that every
kind of technique should be permitted. We are the more ready to do so in
view of the fact that the present interest in "thinking machines" has been
aroused by a particular kind of machine, usually called an "electronic
computer" or "digital computer." Following this suggestion we only permit
digital computers to take part in our game.
This restriction appears at first sight to be a very drastic one. I shall attempt
to show that it is not so in reality. To do this necessitates a short account of
the nature and properties of these computers.
It may also be said that this identification of machines with digital
computers, like our criterion for "thinking," will only be unsatisfactory if
(contrary to my belief), it turns out that digital computers are unable to give
a good showing in the game.
There are already a number of digital computers in working order, and it
may be asked, "Why not try the experiment straight away? It would be easy
to satisfy the conditions of the game. A number of interrogators could be
used, and statistics compiled to show how often the right identification was
given." The short answer is that we are not asking whether all digital
computers would do well in the game nor whether the computers at present
available would do well, but whether there are imaginable computers which
would do well. But this is only the short answer. We shall see this question
in a different light later.
4. Digital Computers
The idea behind digital computers may be explained by saying that these
machines are intended to carry out any operations which could be done by a
human computer. The human computer is supposed to be following fixed
rules; he has no authority to deviate from them in any detail. We may
suppose that these rules are supplied in a book, which is altered whenever
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he is put on to a new job. He has also an unlimited supply of paper on
which he does his calculations. He may also do his multiplications and
additions on a "desk machine," but this is not important.
If we use the above explanation as a definition we shall be in danger of
circularity of argument. We avoid this by giving an outline. of the means by
which the desired effect is achieved. A digital computer can usually be
regarded as consisting of three parts:
(i) Store.
(ii) Executive unit.
(iii) Control.
The store is a store of information, and corresponds to the human
computer's paper, whether this is the paper on which he does his
calculations or that on which his book of rules is printed. In so far as the
human computer does calculations in his bead a part of the store will
correspond to his memory.
The executive unit is the part which carries out the various individual
operations involved in a calculation. What these individual operations are
will vary from machine to machine. Usually fairly lengthy operations can
be done such as "Multiply 3540675445 by 7076345687" but in some
machines only very simple ones such as "Write down 0" are possible.
We have mentioned that the "book of rules" supplied to the computer is
replaced in the machine by a part of the store. It is then called the "table of
instructions." It is the duty of the control to see that these instructions are
obeyed correctly and in the right order. The control is so constructed that
this necessarily happens.
The information in the store is usually broken up into packets of moderately
small size. In one machine, for instance, a packet might consist of ten
decimal digits. Numbers are assigned to the parts of the store in which the
various packets of information are stored, in some systematic manner. A
typical instruction might say-
"Add the number stored in position 6809 to that in 4302 and put the result
back into the latter storage position."
Needless to say it would not occur in the machine expressed in English. It
would more likely be coded in a form such as 6809430217. Here 17 says
which of various possible operations is to be performed on the two
numbers. In this case the)e operation is that described above, viz., "Add the
number. . . ." It will be noticed that the instruction takes up 10 digits and so
forms one packet of information, very conveniently. The control will
normally take the instructions to be obeyed in the order of the positions in
which they are stored, but occasionally an instruction such as
"Now obey the instruction stored in position 5606, and continue from there"
may be encountered, or again
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"If position 4505 contains 0 obey next the instruction stored in 6707,
otherwise continue straight on."
Instructions of these latter types are very important because they make it
possible for a sequence of operations to be replaced over and over again
until some condition is fulfilled, but in doing so to obey, not fresh
instructions on each repetition, but the same ones over and over again. To
take a domestic analogy. Suppose Mother wants Tommy to call at the
cobbler's every morning on his way to school to see if her shoes are done,
she can ask him afresh every morning. Alternatively she can stick up a
notice once and for all in the hall which he will see when he leaves for
school and which tells him to call for the shoes, and also to destroy the
notice when he comes back if he has the shoes with him.
The reader must accept it as a fact that digital computers can be constructed,
and indeed have been constructed, according to the principles we have
described, and that they can in fact mimic the actions of a human computer
very closely.
The book of rules which we have described our human computer as using is
of course a convenient fiction. Actual human computers really remember
what they have got to do. If one wants to make a machine mimic the
behaviour of the human computer in some complex operation one has to ask
him how it is done, and then translate the answer into the form of an
instruction table. Constructing instruction tables is usually described as
"programming." To "programme a machine to carry out the operation A"
means to put the appropriate instruction table into the machine so that it will
do A.
An interesting variant on the idea of a digital computer is a "digital
computer with a random element." These have instructions involving the
throwing of a die or some equivalent electronic process; one such
instruction might for instance be, "Throw the die and put the-resulting
number into store 1000." Sometimes such a machine is described as having
free will (though I would not use this phrase myself), It is not normally
possible to determine from observing a machine whether it has a random
element, for a similar effect can be produced by such devices as making the
choices depend on the digits of the decimal for .
Most actual digital computers have only a finite store. There is no
theoretical difficulty in the idea of a computer with an unlimited store. Of
course only a finite part can have been used at any one time. Likewise only
a finite amount can have been constructed, but we can imagine more and
more being added as required. Such computers have special theoretical
interest and will be called infinitive capacity computers.
The idea of a digital computer is an old one. Charles Babbage, Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics at Cambridge from 1828 to 1839, planned such a
machine, called the Analytical Engine, but it was never completed.
Although Babbage had all the essential ideas, his machine was not at that
time such a very attractive prospect. The speed which would have been
available would be definitely faster than a human computer but something
like I 00 times slower than the Manchester machine, itself one of the slower
of the modern machines, The storage was to be purely mechanical, using
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wheels and cards.
The fact that Babbage's Analytical Engine was to be entirely mechanical
will help us to rid ourselves of a superstition. Importance is often attached
to the fact that modern digital computers are electrical, and that the nervous
system also is electrical. Since Babbage's machine was not electrical, and
since all digital computers are in a sense equivalent, we see that this use of
electricity cannot be of theoretical importance. Of course electricity usually
comes in where fast signalling is concerned, so that it is not surprising that
we find it in both these connections. In the nervous system chemical
phenomena are at least as important as electrical. In certain computers the
storage system is mainly acoustic. The feature of using electricity is thus
seen to be only a very superficial similarity. If we wish to find such
similarities we should took rather for mathematical analogies of function.
5. Universality of Digital Computers
The digital computers considered in the last section may be classified
amongst the "discrete-state machines." These are the machines which move
by sudden jumps or clicks from one quite definite state to another. These
states are sufficiently different for the possibility of confusion between
them to be ignored. Strictly speaking there, are no such machines.
Everything really moves continuously. But there are many kinds of machine
which can profitably be thought of as being discrete-state machines. For
instance in considering the switches for a lighting system it is a convenient
fiction that each switch must be definitely on or definitely off. There must
be intermediate positions, but for most purposes we can forget about them.
As an example of a discrete-state machine we might consider a wheel which
clicks round through 120 once a second, but may be stopped by a ]ever
which can be operated from outside; in addition a lamp is to light in one of
the positions of the wheel. This machine could be described abstractly as
follows. The internal state of the machine (which is described by the
position of the wheel) may be q1, q2 or q3. There is an input signal i0. or i1
(position of ]ever). The internal state at any moment is determined by the
last state and input signal according to the table
(TABLE DELETED)
The output signals, the only externally visible indication of the internal state
(the light) are described by the table
State q1 q2 q3
output o0 o0 o1
This example is typical of discrete-state machines. They can be described
by such tables provided they have only a finite number of possible states.
It will seem that given the initial state of the machine and the input signals
it is always possible to predict all future states, This is reminiscent of
Laplace's view that from the complete state of the universe at one moment
of time, as described by the positions and velocities of all particles, it
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should be possible to predict all future states. The prediction which we are
considering is, however, rather nearer to practicability than that considered
by Laplace. The system of the "universe as a whole" is such that quite small
errors in the initial conditions can have an overwhelming effect at a later
time. The displacement of a single electron by a billionth of a centimetre at
one moment might make the difference between a man being killed by an
avalanche a year later, or escaping. It is an essential property of the
mechanical systems which we have called "discrete-state machines" that
this phenomenon does not occur. Even when we consider the actual
physical machines instead of the idealised machines, reasonably accurate
knowledge of the state at one moment yields reasonably accurate
knowledge any number of steps later.
As we have mentioned, digital computers fall within the class of discretestate
machines. But the number of states of which such a machine is capable
is usually enormously large. For instance, the number for the machine now
working at Manchester is about 2 165,000, i.e., about 10 50,000. Compare this
with our example of the clicking wheel described above, which had three
states. It is not difficult to see why the number of states should be so
immense. The computer includes a store corresponding to the paper used by
a human computer. It must be possible to write into the store any one of the
combinations of symbols which might have been written on the paper. For
simplicity suppose that only digits from 0 to 9 are used as symbols.
Variations in handwriting are ignored. Suppose the computer is allowed 100
sheets of paper each containing 50 lines each with room for 30 digits. Then
the number of states is 10 100x50x30 i.e., 10 150,000 . This is about the
number of states of three Manchester machines put together. The logarithm
to the base two of the number of states is usually called the "storage
capacity" of the machine. Thus the Manchester machine has a storage
capacity of about 165,000 and the wheel machine of our example about 1.6.
If two machines are put together their capacities must be added to obtain the
capacity of the resultant machine. This leads to the possibility of statements
such as "The Manchester machine contains 64 magnetic tracks each with a
capacity of 2560, eight electronic tubes with a capacity of 1280.
Miscellaneous storage amounts to about 300 making a total of 174,380."
Given the table corresponding to a discrete-state machine it is possible to
predict what it will do. There is no reason why this calculation should not
be carried out by means of a digital computer. Provided it could be carried
out sufficiently quickly the digital computer could mimic the behavior of
any discrete-state machine. The imitation game could then be played with
the machine in question (as B) and the mimicking digital computer (as A)
and the interrogator would be unable to distinguish them. Of course the
digital computer must have an adequate storage capacity as well as working
sufficiently fast. Moreover, it must be programmed afresh for each new
machine which it is desired to mimic.
This special property of digital computers, that they can mimic any discretestate
machine, is described by saying that they are universal machines. The
existence of machines with this property has the important consequence
that, considerations of speed apart, it is unnecessary to design various new
machines to do various computing processes. They can all be done with one
digital computer, suitably programmed for each case. It 'ill be seen that as a
consequence of this all digital computers are in a sense equivalent.
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We may now consider again the point raised at the end of §3. It was
suggested tentatively that the question, "Can machines think?" should be
replaced by "Are there imaginable digital computers which would do well
in the imitation game?" If we wish we can make this superficially more
general and ask "Are there discrete-state machines which would do well?"
But in view of the universality property we see that either of these questions
is equivalent to this, "Let us fix our attention on one particular digital
computer C. Is it true that by modifying this computer to have an adequate
storage, suitably increasing its speed of action, and providing it with an
appropriate programme, C can be made to play satisfactorily the part of A
in the imitation game, the part of B being taken by a man?"
6. Contrary Views on the Main Question
We may now consider the ground to have been cleared and we are ready to
proceed to the debate on our question, "Can machines think?" and the
variant of it quoted at the end of the last section. We cannot altogether
abandon the original form of the problem, for opinions will differ as to the
appropriateness of the substitution and we must at least listen to what has to
be said in this connexion.
It will simplify matters for the reader if I explain first my own beliefs in the
matter. Consider first the more accurate form of the question. I believe that
in about fifty years' time it will be possible, to programme computers, with
a storage capacity of about 109, to make them play the imitation game so
well that an average interrogator will not have more than 70 per cent chance
of making the right identification after five minutes of questioning. The
original question, "Can machines think?" I believe to be too meaningless to
deserve discussion. Nevertheless I believe that at the end of the century the
use of words and general educated opinion will have altered so much that
one will be able to speak of machines thinking without expecting to be
contradicted. I believe further that no useful purpose is served by
concealing these beliefs. The popular view that scientists proceed
inexorably from well-established fact to well-established fact, never being
influenced by any improved conjecture, is quite mistaken. Provided it is
made clear which are proved facts and which are conjectures, no harm can
result. Conjectures are of great importance since they suggest useful lines of
research.
I now proceed to consider opinions opposed to my own.
(1) The Theological Objection
Thinking is a function of man's immortal soul. God has given an immortal
soul to every man and woman, but not to any other animal or to machines.
Hence no animal or machine can think.
I am unable to accept any part of this, but will attempt to reply in
theological terms. I should find the argument more convincing if animals
were classed with men, for there is a greater difference, to my mind,
between the typical animate and the inanimate than there is between man
and the other animals. The arbitrary character of the orthodox view
becomes clearer if we consider how it might appear to a member of some
other religious community. How do Christians regard the Moslem view that
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women have no souls? But let us leave this point aside and return to the
main argument. It appears to me that the argument quoted above implies a
serious restriction of the omnipotence of the Almighty. It is admitted that
there are certain things that He cannot do such as making one equal to two,
but should we not believe that He has freedom to confer a soul on an
elephant if He sees fit? We might expect that He would only exercise this
power in conjunction with a mutation which provided the elephant with an
appropriately improved brain to minister to the needs of this sort[. An
argument of exactly similar form may be made for the case of machines. It
may seem different because it is more difficult to "swallow." But this really
only means that we think it would be less likely that He would consider the
circumstances suitable for conferring a soul. The circumstances in question
are discussed in the rest of this paper. In attempting to construct such
machines we should not be irreverently usurping His power of creating
souls, any more than we are in the procreation of children: rather we are, in
either case, instruments of His will providing .mansions for the souls that
He creates.
However, this is mere speculation. I am not very impressed with theological
arguments whatever they may be used to support. Such arguments have
often been found unsatisfactory in the past. In the time of Galileo it was
argued that the texts, "And the sun stood still . . . and hasted not to go down
about a whole day" (Joshua x. 13) and "He laid the foundations of the earth,
that it should not move at any time" (Psalm cv. 5) were an adequate
refutation of the Copernican theory. With our present knowledge such an
argument appears futile. When that knowledge was not available it made a
quite different impression.
(2) The "Heads in the Sand" Objection
The consequences of machines thinking would be too dreadful. Let us hope
and believe that they cannot do so."
This argument is seldom expressed quite so openly as in the form above.
But it affects most of us who think about it at all. We like to believe that
Man is in some subtle way superior to the rest of creation. It is best if he can
be shown to be necessarily superior, for then there is no danger of him
losing his commanding position. The popularity of the theological argument
is clearly connected with this feeling. It is likely to be quite strong in
intellectual people, since they value the power of thinking more highly than
others, and are more inclined to base their belief in the superiority of Man
on this power.
I do not think that this argument is sufficiently substantial to require
refutation. Consolation would be more appropriate: perhaps this should be
sought in the transmigration of souls.
(3) The Mathematical Objection
There are a number of results of mathematical logic which can be used to
show that there are limitations to the powers of discrete-state machines. The
best known of these results is known as Godel's theorem ( 1931 ) and shows
that in any sufficiently powerful logical system statements can be
formulated which can neither be proved nor disproved within the system,
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unless possibly the system itself is inconsistent. There are other, in some
respects similar, results due to Church (1936), Kleene (1935), Rosser, and
Turing (1937). The latter result is the most convenient to consider, since it
refers directly to machines, whereas the others can only be used in a
comparatively indirect argument: for instance if Godel's theorem is to be
used we need in addition to have some means of describing logical systems
in terms of machines, and machines in terms of logical systems. The result
in question refers to a type of machine which is essentially a digital
computer with an infinite capacity. It states that there are certain things that
such a machine cannot do. If it is rigged up to give answers to questions as
in the imitation game, there will be some questions to which it will either
give a wrong answer, or fail to give an answer at all however much time is
allowed for a reply. There may, of course, be many such questions, and
questions which cannot be answered by one machine may be satisfactorily
answered by another. We are of course supposing for the present that the
questions are of the kind to which an answer "Yes" or "No" is appropriate,
rather than questions such as "What do you think of Picasso?" The
questions that we know the machines must fail on are of this type,
"Consider the machine specified as follows. . . . Will this machine ever
answer 'Yes' to any question?" The dots are to be replaced by a description
of some machine in a standard form, which could be something like that
used in §5. When the machine described bears a certain comparatively
simple relation to the machine which is under interrogation, it can be shown
that the answer is either wrong or not forthcoming. This is the mathematical
result: it is argued that it proves a disability of machines to which the
human intellect is not subject.
The short answer to this argument is that although it is established that there
are limitations to the Powers If any particular machine, it has only been
stated, without any sort of proof, that no such limitations apply to the
human intellect. But I do not think this view can be dismissed quite so
lightly. Whenever one of these machines is asked the appropriate critical
question, and gives a definite answer, we know that this answer must be
wrong, and this gives us a certain feeling of superiority. Is this feeling
illusory? It is no doubt quite genuine, but I do not think too much
importance should be attached to it. We too often give wrong answers to
questions ourselves to be justified in being very pleased at such evidence of
fallibility on the part of the machines. Further, our superiority can only be
felt on such an occasion in relation to the one machine over which we have
scored our petty triumph. There would be no question of triumphing
simultaneously over all machines. In short, then, there might be men
cleverer than any given machine, but then again there might be other
machines cleverer again, and so on.
Those who hold to the mathematical argument would, I think, mostly he
willing to accept the imitation game as a basis for discussion, Those who
believe in the two previous objections would probably not be interested in
any criteria.
(4) The Argument from Consciousness
This argument is very, well expressed in Professor Jefferson's Lister
Oration for 1949, from which I quote. "Not until a machine can write a
sonnet or compose a concerto because of thoughts and emotions felt, and
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not by the chance fall of symbols, could we agree that machine equals
brain-that is, not only write it but know that it had written it. No mechanism
could feel (and not merely artificially signal, an easy contrivance) pleasure
at its successes, grief when its valves fuse, be warmed by flattery, be made
miserable by its mistakes, be charmed by sex, be angry or depressed when it
cannot get what it wants."
This argument appears to be a denial of the validity of our test. According
to the most extreme form of this view the only way by which one could be
sure that machine thinks is to be the machine and to feel oneself thinking.
One could then describe these feelings to the world, but of course no one
would be justified in taking any notice. Likewise according to this view the
only way to know that a man thinks is to be that particular man. It is in fact
the solipsist point of view. It may be the most logical view to hold but it
makes communication of ideas difficult. A is liable to believe "A thinks but
B does not" whilst B believes "B thinks but A does not." instead of arguing
continually over this point it is usual to have the polite convention that
everyone thinks.
I am sure that Professor Jefferson does not wish to adopt the extreme and
solipsist point of view. Probably he would be quite willing to accept the
imitation game as a test. The game (with the player B omitted) is frequently
used in practice under the name of viva voce to discover whether some one
really understands something or has "learnt it parrot fashion." Let us listen
in to a part of such a viva voce:
Interrogator: In the first line of your sonnet which reads "Shall I compare
thee to a summer's day," would not "a spring day" do as well or better?
Witness: It wouldn't scan.
Interrogator: How about "a winter's day," That would scan all right.
Witness: Yes, but nobody wants to be compared to a winter's day.
Interrogator: Would you say Mr. Pickwick reminded you of Christmas?
Witness: In a way.
Interrogator: Yet Christmas is a winter's day, and I do not think Mr.
Pickwick would mind the comparison.
Witness: I don't think you're serious. By a winter's day one means a typical
winter's day, rather than a special one like Christmas.
And so on, What would Professor Jefferson say if the sonnet-writing
machine was able to answer like this in the viva voce? I do not know
whether he would regard the machine as "merely artificially signalling"
these answers, but if the answers were as satisfactory and sustained as in the
above passage I do not think he would describe it as "an easy contrivance."
This phrase is, I think, intended to cover such devices as the inclusion in the
machine of a record of someone reading a sonnet, with appropriate
switching to turn it on from time to time.
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In short then, I think that most of those who support the argument from
consciousness could be persuaded to abandon it rather than be forced into
the solipsist position. They will then probably be willing to accept our test.
I do not wish to give the impression that I think there is no mystery about
consciousness. There is, for instance, something of a paradox connected
with any attempt to localise it. But I do not think these mysteries necessarily
need to be solved before we can answer the question with which we are
concerned in this paper.
(5) Arguments from Various Disabilities
These arguments take the form, "I grant you that you can make machines do
all the things you have mentioned but you will never be able to make one to
do X." Numerous features X are suggested in this connexion I offer a
selection:
Be kind, resourceful, beautiful, friendly, have initiative, have a sense of
humour, tell right from wrong, make mistakes, fall in love, enjoy
strawberries and cream, make some one fall in love with it, learn from
experience, use words properly, be the subject of its own thought, have as
much diversity of behaviour as a man, do something really new.
No support is usually offered for these statements. I believe they are mostly
founded on the principle of scientific induction. A man has seen thousands
of machines in his lifetime. From what he sees of them he draws a number
of general conclusions. They are ugly, each is designed for a very limited
purpose, when required for a minutely different purpose they are useless,
the variety of behaviour of any one of them is very small, etc., etc.
Naturally he concludes that these are necessary properties of machines in
general. Many of these limitations are associated with the very small
storage capacity of most machines. (I am assuming that the idea of storage
capacity is extended in some way to cover machines other than discretestate
machines. The exact definition does not matter as no mathematical
accuracy is claimed in the present discussion,) A few years ago, when very
little had been heard of digital computers, it was possible to elicit much
incredulity concerning them, if one mentioned their properties without
describing their construction. That was presumably due to a similar
application of the principle of scientific induction. These applications of the
principle are of course largely unconscious. When a burnt child fears the
fire and shows that he fears it by avoiding it, f should say that he was
applying scientific induction. (I could of course also describe his behaviour
in many other ways.) The works and customs of mankind do not seem to be
very suitable material to which to apply scientific induction. A very large
part of space-time must be investigated, if reliable results are to be obtained.
Otherwise we may (as most English 'Children do) decide that everybody
speaks English, and that it is silly to learn French.
There are, however, special remarks to be made about many of the
disabilities that have been mentioned. The inability to enjoy strawberries
and cream may have struck the reader as frivolous. Possibly a machine
might be made to enjoy this delicious dish, but any attempt to make one do
so would be idiotic. What is important about this disability is that it
contributes to some of the other disabilities, e.g., to the difficulty of the
2012-01-04 page(12/21)
same kind of friendliness occurring between man and machine as between
white man and white man, or between black man and black man.
The claim that "machines cannot make mistakes" seems a curious one. One
is tempted to retort, "Are they any the worse for that?" But let us adopt a
more sympathetic attitude, and try to see what is really meant. I think this
criticism can be explained in terms of the imitation game. It is claimed that
the interrogator could distinguish the machine from the man simply by
setting them a number of problems in arithmetic. The machine would be
unmasked because of its deadly accuracy. The reply to this is simple. The
machine (programmed for playing the game) would not attempt to give the
right answers to the arithmetic problems. It would deliberately introduce
mistakes in a manner calculated to confuse the interrogator. A mechanical
fault would probably show itself through an unsuitable decision as to what
sort of a mistake to make in the arithmetic. Even this interpretation of the
criticism is not sufficiently sympathetic. But we cannot afford the space to
go into it much further. It seems to me that this criticism depends on a
confusion between two kinds of mistake, We may call them "errors of
functioning" and "errors of conclusion." Errors of functioning are due to
some mechanical or electrical fault which causes the machine to behave
otherwise than it was designed to do. In philosophical discussions one likes
to ignore the possibility of such errors; one is therefore discussing "abstract
machines." These abstract machines are mathematical fictions rather than
physical objects. By definition they are incapable of errors of functioning.
In this sense we can truly say that "machines can never make mistakes."
Errors of conclusion can only arise when some meaning is attached to the
output signals from the machine. The machine might, for instance, type out
mathematical equations, or sentences in English. When a false proposition
is typed we say that the machine has committed an error of conclusion.
There is clearly no reason at all for saying that a machine cannot make this
kind of mistake. It might do nothing but type out repeatedly "O = I." To
take a less perverse example, it might have some method for drawing
conclusions by scientific induction. We must expect such a method to lead
occasionally to erroneous results.
The claim that a machine cannot be the subject of its own thought can of
course only be answered if it can be shown that the machine has some
thought with some subject matter. Nevertheless, "the subject matter of a
machine's operations" does seem to mean something, at least to the people
who deal with it. If, for instance, the machine was trying to find a solution
of the equation x2 - 40x - 11 = 0 one would be tempted to describe this
equation as part of the machine's subject matter at that moment. In this sort
of sense a machine undoubtedly can be its own subject matter. It may be
used to help in making up its own programmes, or to predict the effect of
alterations in its own structure. By observing the results of its own
behaviour it can modify its own programmes so as to achieve some purpose
more effectively. These are possibilities of the near future, rather than
Utopian dreams.
The criticism that a machine cannot have much diversity of behaviour is
just a way of saying that it cannot have much storage capacity. Until fairly
recently a storage capacity of even a thousand digits was very rare.
The criticisms that we are considering here are often disguised forms of the
2012-01-04 page(13/21)
argument from consciousness, Usually if one maintains that a machine can
do one of these things, and describes the kind of method that the machine
could use, one will not make much of an impression. It is thought that tile
method (whatever it may be, for it must be mechanical) is really rather base.
Compare the parentheses in Jefferson's statement quoted on page 22.
(6) Lady Lovelace's Objection
Our most detailed information of Babbage's Analytical Engine comes from
a memoir by Lady Lovelace ( 1842). In it she states, "The Analytical
Engine has no pretensions to originate anything. It can do whatever we
know how to order it to perform" (her italics). This statement is quoted by
Hartree ( 1949) who adds: "This does not imply that it may not be possible
to construct electronic equipment which will 'think for itself,' or in which, in
biological terms, one could set up a conditioned reflex, which would serve
as a basis for 'learning.' Whether this is possible in principle or not is a
stimulating and exciting question, suggested by some of these recent
developments But it did not seem that the machines constructed or
projected at the time had this property."
I am in thorough agreement with Hartree over this. It will be noticed that he
does not assert that the machines in question had not got the property, but
rather that the evidence available to Lady Lovelace did not encourage her to
believe that they had it. It is quite possible that the machines in question had
in a sense got this property. For suppose that some discrete-state machine
has the property. The Analytical Engine was a universal digital computer,
so that, if its storage capacity and speed were adequate, it could by suitable
programming be made to mimic the machine in question. Probably this
argument did not occur to the Countess or to Babbage. In any case there
was no obligation on them to claim all that could be claimed.
This whole question will be considered again under the heading of learning
machines.
A variant of Lady Lovelace's objection states that a machine can "never do
anything really new." This may be parried for a moment with the saw,
"There is nothing new under the sun." Who can be certain that "original
work" that he has done was not simply the growth of the seed planted in
him by teaching, or the effect of following well-known general principles.
A better variant of the objection says that a machine can never "take us by
surprise." This statement is a more direct challenge and can be met directly.
Machines take me by surprise with great frequency. This is largely because
I do not do sufficient calculation to decide what to expect them to do, or
rather because, although I do a calculation, I do it in a hurried, slipshod
fashion, taking risks. Perhaps I say to myself, "I suppose the Voltage here
ought to he the same as there: anyway let's assume it is." Naturally I am
often wrong, and the result is a surprise for me for by the time the
experiment is done these assumptions have been forgotten. These
admissions lay me open to lectures on the subject of my vicious ways, but
do not throw any doubt on my credibility when I testify to the surprises I
experience.
I do not expect this reply to silence my critic. He will probably say that h
surprises are due to some creative mental act on my part, and reflect no
2012-01-04 page(14/21)
credit on the machine. This leads us back to the argument from
consciousness, and far from the idea of surprise. It is a line of argument we
must consider closed, but it is perhaps worth remarking that the
appreciation of something as surprising requires as much of a "creative
mental act" whether the surprising event originates from a man, a book, a
machine or anything else.
The view that machines cannot give rise to surprises is due, I believe, to a
fallacy to which philosophers and mathematicians are particularly subject.
This is the assumption that as soon as a fact is presented to a mind all
consequences of that fact spring into the mind simultaneously with it. It is a
very useful assumption under many circumstances, but one too easily
forgets that it is false. A natural consequence of doing so is that one then
assumes that there is no virtue in the mere working out of consequences
from data and general principles.
(7) Argument from Continuity in the Nervous System
The nervous system is certainly not a discrete-state machine. A small error
in the information about the size of a nervous impulse impinging on a
neuron, may make a large difference to the size of the outgoing impulse. It
may be argued that, this being so, one cannot expect to be able to mimic the
behaviour of the nervous system with a discrete-state system.
It is true that a discrete-state machine must be different from a continuous
machine. But if we adhere to the conditions of the imitation game, the
interrogator will not be able to take any advantage of this difference. The
situation can be made clearer if we consider sonic other simpler continuous
machine. A differential analyser will do very well. (A differential analyser
is a certain kind of machine not of the discrete-state type used for some
kinds of calculation.) Some of these provide their answers in a typed form,
and so are suitable for taking part in the game. It would not be possible for a
digital computer to predict exactly what answers the differential analyser
would give to a problem, but it would be quite capable of giving the right
sort of answer. For instance, if asked to give the value of (actually about
3.1416) it would be reasonable to choose at random between the values
3.12, 3.13, 3.14, 3.15, 3.16 with the probabilities of 0.05, 0.15, 0.55, 0.19,
0.06 (say). Under these circumstances it would be very difficult for the
interrogator to distinguish the differential analyser from the digital
computer.
(8) The Argument from Informality of Behaviour
It is not possible to produce a set of rules purporting to describe what a man
should do in every conceivable set of circumstances. One might for instance
have a rule that one is to stop when one sees a red traffic light, and to go if
one sees a green one, but what if by some fault both appear together? One
may perhaps decide that it is safest to stop. But some further difficulty may
well arise from this decision later. To attempt to provide rules of conduct to
cover every eventuality, even those arising from traffic lights, appears to be
impossible. With all this I agree.
From this it is argued that we cannot be machines. I shall try to reproduce
the argument, but I fear I shall hardly do it justice. It seems to run
2012-01-04 page(15/21)
something like this. "if each man had a definite set of rules of conduct by
which he regulated his life he would be no better than a machine. But there
are no such rules, so men cannot be machines." The undistributed middle is
glaring. I do not think the argument is ever put quite like this, but I believe
this is the argument used nevertheless. There may however be a certain
confusion between "rules of conduct" and "laws of behaviour" to cloud the
issue. By "rules of conduct" I mean precepts such as "Stop if you see red
lights," on which one can act, and of which one can be conscious. By "laws
of behaviour" I mean laws of nature as applied to a man's body such as "if
you pinch him he will squeak." If we substitute "laws of behaviour which
regulate his life" for "laws of conduct by which he regulates his life" in the
argument quoted the undistributed middle is no longer insuperable. For we
believe that it is not only true that being regulated by laws of behaviour
implies being some sort of machine (though not necessarily a discrete-state
machine), but that conversely being such a machine implies being regulated
by such laws. However, we cannot so easily convince ourselves of the
absence of complete laws of behaviour as of complete rules of conduct. The
only way we know of for finding such laws is scientific observation, and we
certainly know of no circumstances under which we could say, "We have
searched enough. There are no such laws."
We can demonstrate more forcibly that any such statement would be
unjustified. For suppose we could be sure of finding such laws if they
existed. Then given a discrete-state machine it should certainly be possible
to discover by observation sufficient about it to predict its future behaviour,
and this within a reasonable time, say a thousand years. But this does not
seem to be the case. I have set up on the Manchester computer a small
programme using only 1,000 units of storage, whereby the machine
supplied with one sixteen-figure number replies with another within two
seconds. I would defy anyone to learn from these replies sufficient about
the programme to be able to predict any replies to untried values.
(9) The Argument from Extrasensory Perception
I assume that the reader is familiar with the idea of extrasensory perception,
and the meaning of the four items of it, viz., telepathy, clairvoyance,
precognition and psychokinesis. These disturbing phenomena seem to deny
all our usual scientific ideas. How we should like to discredit them!
Unfortunately the statistical evidence, at least for telepathy, is
overwhelming. It is very difficult to rearrange one's ideas so as to fit these
new facts in. Once one has accepted them it does not seem a very big step
to believe in ghosts and bogies. The idea that our bodies move simply
according to the known laws of physics, together with some others not yet
discovered but somewhat similar, would be one of the first to go.
This argument is to my mind quite a strong one. One can say in reply that
many scientific theories seem to remain workable in practice, in spite of
clashing with ESP; that in fact one can get along very nicely if one forgets
about it. This is rather cold comfort, and one fears that thinking is just the
kind of phenomenon where ESP may be especially relevant.
A more specific argument based on ESP might run as follows: "Let us play
the imitation game, using as witnesses a man who is good as a telepathic
receiver, and a digital computer. The interrogator can ask such questions as
2012-01-04 page(16/21)
'What suit does the card in my right hand belong to?' The man by telepathy
or clairvoyance gives the right answer 130 times out of 400 cards. The
machine can only guess at random, and perhaps gets 104 right, so the
interrogator makes the right identification." There is an interesting
possibility which opens here. Suppose the digital computer contains a
random number generator. Then it will be natural to use this to decide what
answer to give. But then the random number generator will be subject to the
psychokinetic powers of the interrogator. Perhaps this psychokinesis might
cause the machine to guess right more often than would be expected on a
probability calculation, so that the interrogator might still be unable to make
the right identification. On the other hand, he might be able to guess right
without any questioning, by clairvoyance. With ESP anything may happen.
If telepathy is admitted it will be necessary to tighten our test up. The
situation could be regarded as analogous to that which would occur if the
interrogator were talking to himself and one of the competitors was
listening with his ear to the wall. To put the competitors into a "telepathyproof
room" would satisfy all requirements.
7. Learning Machines
The reader will have anticipated that I have no very convincing arguments
of a positive nature to support my views. If I had I should not have taken
such pains to point out the fallacies in contrary views. Such evidence as I
have I shall now give.
Let us return for a moment to Lady Lovelace's objection, which stated that
the machine can only do what we tell it to do. One could say that a man can
"inject" an idea into the machine, and that it will respond to a certain extent
and then drop into quiescence, like a piano string struck by a hammer.
Another simile would be an atomic pile of less than critical size: an injected
idea is to correspond to a neutron entering the pile from without. Each such
neutron will cause a certain disturbance which eventually dies away. If,
however, the size of the pile is sufficiently increased, tire disturbance
caused by such an incoming neutron will very likely go on and on
increasing until the whole pile is destroyed. Is there a corresponding
phenomenon for minds, and is there one for machines? There does seem to
be one for the human mind. The majority of them seem to be "subcritical,"
i.e., to correspond in this analogy to piles of subcritical size. An idea
presented to such a mind will on average give rise to less than one idea in
reply. A smallish proportion are supercritical. An idea presented to such a
mind that may give rise to a whole "theory" consisting of secondary, tertiary
and more remote ideas. Animals minds seem to be very definitely
subcritical. Adhering to this analogy we ask, "Can a machine be made to be
supercritical?"
The "skin-of-an-onion" analogy is also helpful. In considering the functions
of the mind or the brain we find certain operations which we can explain in
purely mechanical terms. This we say does not correspond to the real mind:
it is a sort of skin which we must strip off if we are to find the real mind.
But then in what remains we find a further skin to be stripped off, and so
on. Proceeding in this way do we ever come to the "real" mind, or do we
eventually come to the skin which has nothing in it? In the latter case the
whole mind is mechanical. (It would not be a discrete-state machine
2012-01-04 page(17/21)
however. We have discussed this.)
These last two paragraphs do not claim to be convincing arguments. They
should rather be described as "recitations tending to produce belief."
The only really satisfactory support that can be given for the view expressed
at the beginning of §6, will be that provided by waiting for the end of the
century and then doing the experiment described. But what can we say in
the meantime? What steps should be taken now if the experiment is to be
successful?
As I have explained, the problem is mainly one of programming. Advances
in engineering will have to be made too, but it seems unlikely that these will
not be adequate for the requirements. Estimates of the storage capacity of
the brain vary from 1010 to 1015 binary digits. I incline to the lower values
and believe that only a very small fraction is used for the higher types of
thinking. Most of it is probably used for the retention of visual impressions,
I should be surprised if more than 109 was required for satisfactory playing
of the imitation game, at any rate against a blind man. (Note: The capacity
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th edition, is 2 X 109) A storage
capacity of 107, would be a very practicable possibility even by present
techniques. It is probably not necessary to increase the speed of operations
of the machines at all. Parts of modern machines which can be regarded as
analogs of nerve cells work about a thousand times faster than the latter.
This should provide a "margin of safety" which could cover losses of speed
arising in many ways, Our problem then is to find out how to programme
these machines to play the game. At my present rate of working I produce
about a thousand digits of progratiirne a day, so that about sixty workers,
working steadily through the fifty years might accomplish the job, if
nothing went into the wastepaper basket. Some more expeditious method
seems desirable.
In the process of trying to imitate an adult human mind we are bound to
think a good deal about the process which has brought it to the state that it
is in. We may notice three components.
(a) The initial state of the mind, say at birth,
(b) The education to which it has been subjected,
(c) Other experience, not to be described as education, to which it has been
subjected.
Instead of trying to produce a programme to simulate the adult mind, why
not rather try to produce one which simulates the child's? If this were then
subjected to an appropriate course of education one would obtain the adult
brain. Presumably the child brain is something like a notebook as one buys
it from the stationer's. Rather little mechanism, and lots of blank sheets.
(Mechanism and writing are from our point of view almost synonymous.)
Our hope is that there is so little mechanism in the child brain that
something like it can be easily programmed. The amount of work in the
education we can assume, as a first approximation, to be much the same as
for the human child.
2012-01-04 page(18/21)
We have thus divided our problem into two parts. The child programme and
the education process. These two remain very closely connected. We cannot
expect to find a good child machine at the first attempt. One must
experiment with teaching one such machine and see how well it learns. One
can then try another and see if it is better or worse. There is an obvious
connection between this process and evolution, by the identifications
Structure of the child machine = hereditary material
Changes of the child machine = mutation,
Natural selection = judgment of the experimenter
One may hope, however, that this process will be more expeditious than
evolution. The survival of the fittest is a slow method for measuring
advantages. The experimenter, by the exercise of intelligence, should he
able to speed it up. Equally important is the fact that he is not restricted to
random mutations. If he can trace a cause for some weakness he can
probably think of the kind of mutation which will improve it.
It will not be possible to apply exactly the same teaching process to the
machine as to a normal child. It will not, for instance, be provided with legs,
so that it could not be asked to go out and fill the coal scuttle. Possibly it
might not have eyes. But however well these deficiencies might be
overcome by clever engineering, one could not send the creature to school
without the other children making excessive fun of it. It must be given some
tuition. We need not be too concerned about the legs, eyes, etc. The
example of Miss Helen Keller shows that education can take place provided
that communication in both directions between teacher and pupil can take
place by some means or other.
We normally associate punishments and rewards with the teaching process.
Some simple child machines can be constructed or programmed on this sort
of principle. The machine has to be so constructed that events which shortly
preceded the occurrence of a punishment signal are unlikely to be repeated,
whereas a reward signal increased the probability of repetition of the events
which led up to it. These definitions do not presuppose any feelings on the
part of the machine, I have done some experiments with one such child
machine, and succeeded in teaching it a few things, but the teaching method
was too unorthodox for the experiment to be considered really successful.
The use of punishments and rewards can at best be a part of the teaching
process. Roughly speaking, if the teacher has no other means of
communicating to the pupil, the amount of information which can reach
him does not exceed the total number of rewards and punishments applied.
By the time a child has learnt to repeat "Casabianca" he would probably feel
very sore indeed, if the text could only be discovered by a "Twenty
Questions" technique, every "NO" taking the form of a blow. It is necessary
therefore to have some other "unemotional" channels of communication. If
these are available it is possible to teach a machine by punishments and
rewards to obey orders given in some language, e.g., a symbolic language.
These orders are to be transmitted through the "unemotional" channels. The
use of this language will diminish greatly the number of punishments and
rewards required.
2012-01-04 page(19/21)
Opinions may vary as to the complexity which is suitable in the child
machine. One might try to make it as simple as possible consistently with
the general principles. Alternatively one might have a complete system of
logical inference "built in."' In the latter case the store would be largely
occupied with definitions and propositions. The propositions would have
various kinds of status, e.g., well-established facts, conjectures,
mathematically proved theorems, statements given by an authority,
expressions having the logical form of proposition but not belief-value.
Certain propositions may be described as "imperatives." The machine
should be so constructed that as soon as an imperative is classed as "well
established" the appropriate action automatically takes place. To illustrate
this, suppose the teacher says to the machine, "Do your homework now."
This may cause "Teacher says 'Do your homework now' " to be included
amongst the well-established facts. Another such fact might be, "Everything
that teacher says is true." Combining these may eventually lead to the
imperative, "Do your homework now," being included amongst the wellestablished
facts, and this, by the construction of the machine, will mean
that the homework actually gets started, but the effect is very satisfactory.
The processes of inference used by the machine need not be such as would
satisfy the most exacting logicians. There might for instance be no
hierarchy of types. But this need not mean that type fallacies will occur, any
more than we are bound to fall over unfenced cliffs. Suitable imperatives
(expressed within the systems, not forming part of the rules of the system)
such as "Do not use a class unless it is a subclass of one which has been
mentioned by teacher" can have a similar effect to "Do not go too near the
edge."
The imperatives that can be obeyed by a machine that has no limbs are
bound to be of a rather intellectual character, as in the example (doing
homework) given above. important amongst such imperatives will be ones
which regulate the order in which the rules of the logical system concerned
are to be applied, For at each stage when one is using a logical system, there
is a very large number of alternative steps, any of which one is permitted to
apply, so far as obedience to the rules of the logical system is concerned.
These choices make the difference between a brilliant and a footling
reasoner, not the difference between a sound and a fallacious one.
Propositions leading to imperatives of this kind might be "When Socrates is
mentioned, use the syllogism in Barbara" or "If one method has been
proved to be quicker than another, do not use the slower method." Some of
these may be "given by authority," but others may be produced by the
machine itself, e.g. by scientific induction.
The idea of a learning machine may appear paradoxical to some readers.
How can the rules of operation of the machine change? They should
describe completely how the machine will react whatever its history might
be, whatever changes it might undergo. The rules are thus quite timeinvariant.
This is quite true. The explanation of the paradox is that the rules
which get changed in the learning process are of a rather less pretentious
kind, claiming only an ephemeral validity. The reader may draw a parallel
with the Constitution of the United States.
An important feature of a learning machine is that its teacher will often be
very largely ignorant of quite what is going on inside, although he may still
be able to some extent to predict his pupil's behavior. This should apply
most strongly to the later education of a machine arising from a child
2012-01-04 page(20/21)
machine of well-tried design (or programme). This is in clear contrast with
normal procedure when using a machine to do computations one's object is
then to have a clear mental picture of the state of the machine at each
moment in the computation. This object can only be achieved with a
struggle. The view that "the machine can only do what we know how to
order it to do,"' appears strange in face of this. Most of the programmes
which we can put into the machine will result in its doing something that we
cannot make sense (if at all, or which we regard as completely random
behaviour. Intelligent behaviour presumably consists in a departure from
the completely disciplined behaviour involved in computation, but a rather
slight one, which does not give rise to random behaviour, or to pointless
repetitive loops. Another important result of preparing our machine for its
part in the imitation game by a process of teaching and learning is that
"human fallibility" is likely to be omitted in a rather natural way, i.e.,
without special "coaching." (The reader should reconcile this with the point
of view on pages 23 and 24.) Processes that are learnt do not produce a
hundred per cent certainty of result; if they did they could not be unlearnt.
It is probably wise to include a random element in a learning machine. A
random element is rather useful when we are searching for a solution of
some problem. Suppose for instance we wanted to find a number between
50 and 200 which was equal to the square of the sum of its digits, we might
start at 51 then try 52 and go on until we got a number that worked.
Alternatively we might choose numbers at random until we got a good one.
This method has the advantage that it is unnecessary to keep track of the
values that have been tried, but the disadvantage that one may try the same
one twice, but this is not very important if there are several solutions. The
systematic method has the disadvantage that there may be an enormous
block without any solutions in the region which has to be investigated first,
Now the learning process may be regarded as a search for a form of
behaviour which will satisfy the teacher (or some other criterion). Since
there is probably a very large number of satisfactory solutions the random
method seems to be better than the systematic. It should be noticed that it is
used in the analogous process of evolution. But there the systematic method
is not possible. How could one keep track of the different genetical
combinations that had been tried, so as to avoid trying them again?
We may hope that machines will eventually compete with men in all purely
intellectual fields. But which are the best ones to start with? Even this is a
difficult decision. Many people think that a very abstract activity, like the
playing of chess, would be best. It can also be maintained that it is best to
provide the machine with the best sense organs that money can buy, and
then teach it to understand and speak English. This process could follow the
normal teaching of a child. Things would be pointed out and named, etc.
Again I do not know what the right answer is, but I think both approaches
should be tried.
We can only see a short distance ahead, but we can see plenty there that
needs to be done.
2012-01-04 page(21/21)
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